New and Non-Religious Movements and Secularization: the changing face of religion

Secularization is an inevitable consequence of the scientific, technological and globalised world we live in, but what does this mean for religion today and in the future?

To define it simply, secularization is the decline of religion. The decline of religion involves the decline of the prestige and power of religious teachers. It also involves the ending of state support for religious bodies as well as the decline of widespread interest in religious traditions.[1]Secularization is a process that has occurred throughout many countries across the globe. As Rene Remond stated “The process of secularization which at first brought about the dissociation of Church and state, then separated religion from society, spanned a period that varied from one country to another”.[2] There is evidence to support the theory of secularization. In the UK, the number of people who associate themselves with the Church of England has decreased by twenty two percent in the last thirty years.[3] Further evidence for secularization within the UK is in 2011, where one quarter of the population stated that they do not associate themselves with any religion - which is a ten percent increase from 2001.[4] There are many reasons as to why secularization has occurred, one of which is modernization. Auguste Comte highlighted this when he argued that because of modernization, human society was outgrowing the theological stage of social evolution into a truly scientific one.[5] This view would be supported by Jean-Francois Lyotard who argued that religions have lost their metanarratives. Today, the primary metanarrative is science and technology, whereas before, it was religion.[6] Other reasons for secularization include: individualism, immigration, cultural diversity, the media, liberalization and government policy. Using the UK as an example again, there have been many changes to British Law which have led people away from the traditional religion of the country – Christianity. The Abortion Act in nineteen sixty seven, the amendments to the Sexual Offences Act also in nineteen sixty seven and the legalization of gay marriage in two thousand and fourteen, are all policies that oppose the teachings of the Church. This has provided people the opportunity to lead a lifestyle that has little or no influence from Christianity. The Church is widely seen as a conservative institution whereas government policies in the last fifty years or so have enabled society to become more liberal. This has resulted in the Church losing its appeal to members of society, especially the younger generation. This is because the Church’s stance on moral issues such as abortion, contraception and homosexuality is different to the norms of the society that the younger generation have been raised up in. Therefore, the Church has simply become marginalized. As the former Archbishop of Canterbury George Carey stated, the Church of England is like an “elderly lady” - it is simply fading away from society and therefore no longer has the appeal that it once had.However, it is not as simple as saying that religion is in continuous decline and will eventually die out completely. In fact there is just as much evidence that challenges the theory of secularization as there is that supports this theory. Globally, there are currently one point six billion Muslims and this figure is estimated to rise to two point two billion by twenty thirty. Some sociologists and theologians would argue not so much in opposition to secularization but simply the way that the way the face of religion has changed. It has moved away from religious institutions embedded in wider society and has become more individualized and privatized. As Grace Davie pointed out, just because people do not go to Church anymore, does not mean that they do not have belief. Furthermore, the variety of New Religious Movements ranging from Wicca to the Unification Church just goes to show that people still very much desire that religious influence in their lives. Moreover, the levels of religious popularity and commitment amongst ethnic minorities in Western countries is still very high. This was reflected during Diwali in Leicester, where thirty five thousand people attended the festival. Whilst it is by no means illogical to believe that religion is in decline, it is illogical to believe however, that this is happening on a global level. Many countries outside of the Western World are still very religious. In fact countries such as Indonesia and Saudi Arabia are completely dictated by religious laws. In addition, a lot of conflicts are still religiously motivated. There are numerous examples to demonstrate this: Saudi Arabia’s conflict with Iran is a clash of two different branches of Islam (Shia and Sunni), Israel and Palestine’s conflict over the ‘Holy Lands’ and the Rohingya persecution in Myanmar are just some examples of religiously motivated conflicts.It can be argued that the existence of religious fundamentalism presents the biggest challenge to the theory of secularization due its rising popularity. Each of the ‘traditional religions’ all have branches of fundamentalism and they are becoming increasingly popular due to the discontent of the individualistic way of life in the Western World. Western societies no longer have religious cohesion or this sense of religious unity. This has led to an individualistic society which is compatible with the Postmodernist notion of mass fragmentation, described by Colin Campbell as ‘the cultic milieu’. Fundamentalism appeals too many people in Western societies who desire society to go back to as they were before, in terms of religious unity and tradition. Furthermore, fundamentalism appeals to those in third-world countries as a way of opposing not only the Western World’s way of life, but also in response to the effect that Western Imperialism has had on them. The West throughout history has caused mass violence and uncertainty in a lot of third-world countries, where cultures have been forced to uproot their traditions and have the Western World’s way of life imposed on them. Fundamentalism in their eyes, is a form of direct opposition. In addition, religious fundamentalists as a whole deplore the public/private distinction of societies in the Western World. Religion is categorized as a private affair and this undermines traditional religions and customs. The function of the government is to regulate public affairs such as the economy and public behavior, whereas in the private sphere, people are free to do what they will. The government banned religion from the public arena which ensures that there is a separation between religion and the secular public sphere. This was achieved in America by the Establishment Cause of nineteen forty seven. This method of political organization is rejected by fundamentalists because religion is inseparable from law and politics. As John H. Garvey stated, this creates a bad chemistry between modern political ideas and fundamentalism.[7]Fundamentalism as a whole appeals to a lot of people because of its simplicity – it avoids bewilderment. All types of religious fundamentalisms place an emphasis on the literal interpretation of sacred texts as well as the emphasis on traditional values. In this sense, they are very conservative. An example to demonstrate this amongst Islamic and Christian fundamentalists is their disapproval of government policies such as the allowance of gay marriage. Religious fundamentalism also appeals because using Functionalist terminology, it provides social solidarity and social cohesion as well as building the collective consciousness. It gives everyone something in common and it therefore avoids moral uncertainty which is what a lot of societies are currently experiencing.The first New Religious Movement to be used in this essay is the New Christian Right. This is a term used to describe a group of people in America, who aim to implement key traditional Christian beliefs into American politics. They always support socially conservative politics which is why they will always back Republican candidates. The purpose of the New Christian Right is to apply their literal understandings of Christian teachings and to both law and politics. The core of this movement consists of a coalition between Roman Catholics and Evangelical Protestants, but it often receives support from some mainstream Protestants and even Jews and Mormons. Historically, this movement can be traced back to the late nineteen forties, but it started to become hugely influential in the nineteen seventies. They have been widely criticized by the media for their controversial and traditional views on topics such as: abortion, pornography, contraception and homosexuality.Christianity is on the rise again, especially Christian fundamentalism in America and this is changing the shape of American culture. This is partially because American’s take a lot of pride in their history and their history is largely associated with religion – in particular Christianity. The New Christian Right will always gain more followers, as American society becomes more liberal. As Robert Wuthnow argued, the realignment of Christian culture is on a liberal-to-conservative axis and due to the sheer size of this movement, its effect on American politics and culture will be substantial.[8]The foundation of the New Christian Right is the belief that God is always active in the world (theism). It opposes the adaptations of traditional religions in secular societies such as the belief that God only speaks to us in a spiritual way. God according to those within the New Christian Right, clearly acts both on a spiritual and physical level. This theological belief is derived from the literal interpretation of the Bible. The New Christian Right do not really aim to influence religion as such, but they aim to influence politics and law. As mentioned before, they disagree with this separation of religion from politics and law. In their eyes, they should be merged into one and this is why they argue that American law should be based on the Bible.Whilst the New Christian Right may not have a huge amount of followers, their popularity is ever-increasing and their influence on American politics is substantial. For example, Donald Trump received a lot of support from ‘the religious right’ not only for his views on religious liberty and abortion, but because both have experienced marginalization and therefore can comprehend what it is like to be targeted and labelled.[9] Donald Trump is viewed as someone who would stop the increase in liberalization and someone who would restore ‘national identity’ as well as tradition. This is why he gained the support of the New Christian Right in last year’s election.Whilst the term ‘New Christian Right’ is mostly applied to Christian fundamentalism in America, it is also used to describe Christian conservative groups in the political cultures of other Christian-majority countries such as: Democratic Unionist Party in Northern Ireland, Social Christian Party in Brazil, Christian Union in the Netherlands and the Costa Rican Renewal Party. The existence of these political groups as well as many others really challenges the concept of secularization, especially on a global stage, because these are political groups that have large influence on laws and politics. Therefore society is still heavily influenced by religion which brings the theory of secularization into doubt.To assess the impact of secularization across the globe, it is pivotal to understand those who reject the life within a secular society. Religious extremism offers a potential alternative, as it is a radical ideology that is in direct opposition to the Western world’s way of life. Whilst ISIS is known for its brutality and oppression, it is the perfect example of a New Religious Movement that directly opposes the secular world. ISIS only formed as recently as four years ago, but it can be traced back to when Abu Musab al-Zarqawi formed Al-Qaeda in Iraq thirteen years ago.[10] The nature of ISIS is a topic that is continuously debated within the media but using Eileen Barker’s criteria for a New Religious Movement, it does meet the criteria. Barker argued that a New Religious Movement is any religiously motivated movement post World-War-Two and it fulfills the criteria of: converts, members, leadership, worldview and media.[11] Whilst ISIS may have formed as opposition to the Syrian regime and the American invasion of Iraq, they live and govern under Sharia law and this is why ISIS can be viewed as a religiously motivated group as it is a revival of Wahhabism. ISIS links to secularization, because through the internet and the use of propaganda, they have been able to recruit a huge range of different types of followers from different secular societies. ISIS appeals to those who feel alienated in the Western World and these people are predisposed to virtually any opposing system as Paul Hollander claimed.[12]The existence of ISIS is testimony to how desire can trump reason and this desire shows that whilst religion may have had its institutional significance reduced, the desire for a religious life is still there for many.As the evidence suggests, secularization has been occurring for many reasons, but this hasn’t changed the religious influence that billions of people desire in their own lives. In order to avoid complete alienation, the face of religion has had to change to either a more liberal-like theology or as religious fundamentalism demonstrates, a radical belief system. Religious belief and commitment isn’t on the decline at all, in fact it is on the rise. The best way to imagine this is a graph with a U-shaped curve. Religion was on the decline, but in an individualized global world, the discontent for this way of life has seen the rise of religion once again. [1] Alan Bullock and Stephen Trombley, The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought, (HarperCollins Publishers, 1988) p.778-779. [2] Rene Remond, Religion and Society in Modern Europe, (Blackwell Publishers, 1999) p.127. [3] The Spectator, 9th September 2017 <https://www.spectator.co.uk/2017/09/religion-is-on-the-decline-yet-our-society-is-underpinned-by-faith/> [accessed 10th November 2017]. [4] Harriet Sherwood, The Guardian, 12th January 2016 <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jan/12/church-of-england-attendance-falls-below-million-first-time> [accessed 12th November 2017]. [5] Melvin Tinker, 2012 <http://themelios.thegospelcoalition.org/article/secularisation-myth-or-menace-an-assessment-of-modern-worldliness> [accessed 12th November 2017]. [6] John L. Esposito, Darrell J.Fasching, Todd Lewis, World Religions To0day, (Oxford University Press, 2006), p.25. [7] Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, Fundamentalists and the State: Remaking Politics, Economics and Militance, (The University of Chicago Press, 1993), p.13-15. [8] Mark A. Shibley, Resurgent Evangelicalism in the United States: Mapping Cultural Change since 1970, (University of South Carolina Press, 1996), p.5-6. [9] Tim Alberta, Politico Magazine, June 13th 2017, <https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/06/13/trump-and-the-religious-right-a-match-made-in-heaven-215251> [accessed 6th November 2017] [10] Alice Foster, The Express, September 26th 2016, <https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/644304/ISIS-Islamic-State-Destroy-West-Terrorist-Syria-Iraq> [accessed 17th November 2017] [11] Eileen Barker, New and Nonconventional Religious Movements: Implications for Social Harmony, (The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 2010), p.3-10. [12]Simon Cotte, The Atlantic, July 24th 2015, <https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/07/isis-foreign-fighters-political-pilgrims/399209> [accessed 16th November 2017]